Capstone Essay: Critical Thinking Revisited

Abstract

Theorists have struggled to posit a single definition of critical thinking, generating instead a variety of definitions that vary by context. Accepting this variety provides a rich foundation for use in the development of the empowered critical thinker. Emerging Media Psychologist, in particular, faced with analyzing the rapid growth of media influences and their effect on consumer minds are challenged to demonstrate higher-level investigative reasoning skills.  By embodying critical thinking components, students in a media psychology doctoral program can become knowledgeable practitioners skilled in detecting faulty reasoning, biases, and propaganda techniques; analyzing websites; and investigating marketing tools used to shape behavior. Further, according to Brookfield (1986), the process of engaging in higher education and being exposed to individuals whose critical thinking skills are more fully developed than their own will promote critical thinking.

Treatment

Although there has been much debate about how to define critical thinking, common characteristics and criteria have emerged.  The ability to raise important questions is one. Wikipedia (“Critical Thinking,” 2011) defines the critical thinker as inquisitive, posing clear and precise questions. According to Schwarze and Lape (2001), asking questions and engaging in reasonable dialogue that leads to a rational outcome is the basis for critical thought. They labeled this method of rational dialogue thinking Socratically, based on Socrates’ system of query. Similarly, Ruggiero (2004) maintained that the foundation of critical thinking is evaluation. Reflecting this emphasis, his definition of critical thinking focuses on the testing and examining of arguments to determine their worth. Through asking questions, participating in dialogue, and challenging assumptions, individuals can develop their critical thinking abilities.

Another important aspect of learning to be a “competent critical thinker is the ability to self-assess and continually improve one’s thinking” (Celuch & Slama, 1999). There are dozens of biases and blind spots in our thinking. The ideal critical thinker, argues van Gelder (2005), is aware of this and actively monitors her thinking to detect [this] pernicious influence, and deploys compensatory strategies. Becoming a good detector of internal bias is preparation for successfully identifying bias that exists around us. 

The ability to question and to detect bias, both internally and externally, are core components used daily in my professional practice. As I deal with colleagues, clients, and students, I practice putting aside self and ego to acknowledge the unknown. Doing so enables me to raise questions, garner information, and develop a clear understanding of the needs of those I am assisting. Additionally, I discovered that engaging in the weekly forum discussions and creating e-portfolios for this class have led me to develop improved critical thinking skills. As outlined by Wikipedia contributors, I found myself examining, clarifying, discerning, evaluating, and assessing (“Critical thinking,” 2011) my fellow cohorts contributions. Pursuing an advanced degree is enhancing my decision-making and problem solving skills, while generally giving me tools to better manage life and myself.

Critical thinking skills have allowed me to better manage life, in particular, how I use media. Insights provided by Alan November (2007) encourage investigation beyond the surface by using web tools such as easywhois to validate and cross reference information. Learning to evaluate the credibility of authors on websites is crucial, especially since billions of content are being shared daily on the Internet. As scholars pursuing a media degree, using critical thinking skills such as evaluation to assess where information is coming from is important, along with verifying outside sources for reliability, assessing the organization’s mission, and checking the intended purpose and point of view of the author. These tools will also enable us to better detect propaganda techniques and logical fallacies often employed on the Web.

Further, to engage in higher education, we must continually practice our thinking in order to master our minds (Paul & Elder, 2001). Paul and Elder suggest developing one of the “universal intellectual standards (clarity, precision, accuracy, relevance, depth, breadth, logicalness, significance) each week (“Third Strategy, 2001”). During this course, I have experienced improved thinking by putting into effect the four techniques of clarification outlined by Paul & Elder: 1) Stating what you are saying, 2) Elaborating, 3) Giving examples, and 4) Using analogies. These critical thinking methods and others will continue to serve as the foundation for my research and intellectual development during the course of this doctoral program.

Conclusion

Accepting that there is no one way to define critical thinking and acknowledging that definitions will vary by context demonstrates an important essence of critical thinking. It is as diverse as the world in which we live. Activities in this course, over the past weeks, have proven that not everything can be categorized in simple, distinct boxes. An important characteristic of critical thinkers is the ability to tolerate ambiguity and to discern among several shades of gray. Therefore, a diversified approach is needed in our thinking and in how we view those we will serve. In addition, ongoing self-reflection, practice, and active incorporation of critical thinking skills will enhance our development as Media Psychologist.

References

Brookfield, S. (1986). Developing critical thinkers. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Celuch, K. & Slama, M. (1999). Teaching critical thinking skills for the 21st century: An advertising principles case study. Journal of Education for Business, 74 (3), 134-139.

Critical thinking. (n.d.) In Wikipedia. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_thinking

Critical Thinking Cartoon. Retrieved March 20, 2011 from http://fs.huntingdon.edu

Critical Thinking Man image. Retrieved March 20, 2011 from rkmediasolutions.com.

November, A.  (2007, October 22).  Who Owns the Websites Your Kids Acess? [video]. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QVLS_rlwnwI

Paul, R. & Elder, L. (2001). Critical thinking in everyday life: 9 strategies. The Critical Thinking Community. Retrieved March 20, 2011 from http://www.criticalthinking.org/articles/sts-ct-everyday-life.cfm

Ruggiero, V. R. (2004). Beyond feelings: A guide to critical thinking (7th ed.). Boston: McGraw Hill.

 

Schwarze, S., & Lape, H. (2001). Thinking Socratically: Critical thinking about everyday issues. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Van Gelder, T. (2005). Teaching critical thinking. College Teaching, 53(1), 41-47.

Consumer Psychology

Abstract

Professor Mark Crispin Miller of NYU assesses that “What advertising has always wanted to do is not simply to suffuse the atmosphere but to become the atmosphere. It wants us not to be able to find a way outside of the world that it creates for us” (Goodman, Rushkoff, & Dretzin, 2003). Welcome to the matrix. A world where consumers are simple commodities used to power the advertising machine; mined for their coolness, their emotional responses to words, and their primal needs and desires. In this world, advertisers have all the power, or so they would have us believe. For years, marketers have employed varying methods trying to understand the psychology of the consumer mind. They have studied, engaged, and enticed with the hope of making us believe that we only want what they say we want. Arguably, there is a thin line between advertiser wants and consumer needs and vice versa.  But current consumers are more complex than ever, and advertisers are forced to be as creative as possible to woo them. 

 

Treatment

Advertisers have long used traditional methods of persuasion as outlined by masters in the field to understand the consumer mind. In the early 90’s, this took the form of “pseudo-spiritual marketing” as labeled by author Naomi Klein (Goodman, Rushkoff, & Dretzin, 2003). This meant that brands began to sell themselves as being about more than just products, but about concepts, such as community, transcendence, or racial diversity (Goodman et al, 2003). They deduced that people were as loyal to brands as cults are to their leaders, because we all have a need to belong, to join with others to make meaning of the world around us.  This idea was further corroborated by research (Robson, 2009) that indicted activities done in groups, in unison, engendered loyalty. “Loyalty beyond reason” a CEO from a top advertising agency suggested was what companies needed in order to make big profits (Goodman et al, 2003). Companies hired marketing gurus, like Clotaire Rapaille and Frank Luntz, to help them determine how to build costumer loyalty.

Although Rapaille and Luntz had distinctly different ideas about what motivated consumers, they both understood the power of influence. Rapaille asserted that basic instinctual impulses influenced consumer behaviors. Decision-making abilities, he determined, exist beyond the conscious mind, beyond the emotions, at our primal cores (“Interview: Clotaire Rapaille,” 2003). Luntz, on the other hand, determined that language, positive words, influenced consumers to act emotionally. His contention is “that words and emotion together are the most powerful force known to mankind” (“Interview: Frank Luntz,” 2003). Contrary to these perspectives, pioneers of “cool hunting” projected that influence was held by those who were respected, admired, and trusted by their friends (Dretzin & Goodman, 2007). These “cool” individuals were trendsetters whose behaviors would be modeled by the masses. The problem, of course, is that with most things, over exposure to the mass market causes it to lose its appeal. 

While all of the mentioned models have significant value, current consumer behavior fueled by technology and an over saturated advertising market demand a multi-dimensional approach. Carol Cone, a leader in the marketing industry suggests companies "develop programs that are authentic, sustainable, transparent, and well communicated" (Cone, 2007). She pioneered the term “cause marketing” when she devised ways for organizations to align with a cause.  Consumers were empowered knowing that a portion of their spending dollars were donated to the cause supported by the company. Cone further suggests that in today’s market, consumers need even deeper levels of engagement and technology is making it easier to achieve this. Laura Beech, an American Express executive, maintains that it is important for consumers to see that companies are listening to them (“Brands on the Brink,” 2003). Using the world of blogs, Facebook, and Twitter, brands can have a presence and actively engage consumers in providing feedback and spreading news about products.

Conclusion

The quest to understanding the consumer mind is complex, requiring marketers to develop a multidimensional viewpoint on how to effectively provide services. Marketers would do well to consider that consumers have a wide range of perspectives, are motivated by both their emotion and intellect, and are impressed by what’s cool. The best marketers use traditional market research methods, social media methods, and methods that allow consumers to feel a connection to societal issues. Advertisers who creatively engage consumers, acknowledging them as active participants in a mutually beneficial relationship will reap continuous success.

   

References

Brad and Phil image. Retrieved March 13, 2011 from http://happydevil.wordpress.com/brad-phil/

Brands on the Brink: Marketing in a Down Eoonomy. (2003, Feb). In Knowledge@Wharton. Retrieved March 13, 2011 from http://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/article.cfm?articleid=2425

Cone, C. (2007, Nov/Dec). What Do You Stand For? Cause Branding at the Crossroads This Season. Contribute. Retrieved from http://www.coneinc.com/stuff/contentmgr/files/0/e7973cb585bb136b1bba3e9c965bfedb/files/contribute_column_nov_dec.pdf

Dretzin, R. (Writer), & Goodman, B. (Director). (2007). The Merchants of Cool [Television series episode]. In D. Fanning (Executive producer), Frontline. Boston, MA: Public Broadcasting Service.

Goodman, B., Rushkoff, D. (Writers) & Goodman, B., Dretzin, R. (Directors). (2003). The Persuaders [Television series episode]. In D. Fanning (Executive producer), Frontline. Boston, MA: Public Broadcasting Service.

Interview: Clotaire Rapaille. (2003). The Persuaders [Television series episode]. In D. Fanning (Executive producer), Frontline.  Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/persuaders/interviews/luntz.html

Interview: Frank Luntz. (2003). The Persuaders [Television series episode]. In D. Fanning (Executive producer), Frontline.  Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/persuaders/interviews/luntz.html

Microsoft. (2007). Advertiser vs Consumer [Video file]. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=heSudg-tfIk

Robson, D. (2009). How to Control Your Herd of Humans. New Scientist, 201(2694), 13. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com.ezproxy 

Recognizing Web Bias

Abstract

The World Wide Web is comprised of information and data from all over the world. Anyone can add content, thereby, promoting a particular point of view or perspective. Over 21.4 million websites were added in 2010 increasing the total number of sites on the web to 255 million as of December 2010 (“Internet 2010,” 2010). Technology, increasing at such unprecedented rates, has become “a fundamental force in shaping the identity, cognitive and affective processes, and social activities of our students, clients, and research  participants" (APA, 2009).  With technology playing such a crucial role, there is a great need for skills in analyzing and evaluating the merit of information found on the Internet to ascertain its validity and the presence of bias.

Treatment

Sifting through the wealth of information on the web to determine authenticity or bias requires specific investigative skills. Shermer (2009) and researchers from the University of Maryland (2009) and Perdue University (2011) recommend using some of the following questions as a guide:

·      Is the information current? When was the page last updated? Are links up to date?

·      Can claims be replicated or tested?

·      Are theories slanted towards one belief?

·      Who is the author of the website and what are their qualifications and expertise?

·      What is the purpose of the website?

·      Is the site well maintained, easy to read and navigate, few of spelling and grammatical errors?

·      Is the site directed toward a particular audience?

·      Do the associated or linked pages have a bias?

·      How does the information compare to other sources in the field?

November (2007) demonstrated with his example of the Martin Luther King site owned by a White Nationalist organization the necessity of being diligent in researching and validating sites. However, even with due diligence, hidden bias can sometimes be evident. Shermer (2009) presents 10 critical tips for analyzing web data, but his slanted perspective, belligerent attitude, and stereotypical placement of images in his video raise questions about how to retrieve value (if it exists) in content rife with bias. As scholars, we are challenged to apply critical thinking skills to clarify goals, examine assumptions, discern hidden values, evaluate evidence, accomplish actions, and assess conclusions (“Critical thinking,” 2011).  Doing so gives us the ability to separate fact from propaganda and engage in healthy discussion of the negatives and positives present in biased message. It is with this same healthy approach to critical analysis that we must examine all information, whether found on the web or otherwise.

Conclusion

As information on the web grows, our ability to deal with its growth must also increase. Users of the Internet are cautioned to approach web sites with a critical eye to determine validity and authenticity. Implicit and explicit bias in information presented by web contributors dictates that users develop methods for filtering information when navigating web sites. There is great responsibility on all of us to critically verify and validate all information, especially that found on the web, in effort to determine what is valuable and credible.

References

Baby image.  Retrieved March 6, 2011 from http://casualhuntering.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/03/logan-1.jpg

Bias image. Retrieved March 6, 2011 from http://www.sgha.net/articles/ghosthunter_pysch.html

Critical thinking. (n.d.) In Wikipedia. Retrieved March 6, 2011, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_thinking

How technology changes everything (and nothing) in psychology: 2008 annual report of the APA Policy and Planning Board. (2009, July). American Psychologist, 64(5), 454-463. doi:10.1037/a0015888

Internet 2010 in Numbers. (2010).  Retrieved from http://royal.pingdom.com/2011/01/12/internet-2010-in-numbers/

November, A.  (2007, October 22).  Who Owns the Websites Your Kids Acess? [video]. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QVLS_rlwnwI

Purdue University Libraries. Evaluating web sites. Retrieved March 6, 2011 from http://www.lib.purdue.edu/rguides/studentinstruction/evaluation/evaluatingwebsites.html

Shermer, M. (2009, August 27). The baloney detection kit [video]. Retrieved from http://www.committedsardine.com/blogpost.cfm?blogID=181 

Symptoms on the Internet Image. Retrieved March 6, 2011 from http://www.yourplasticbrain.com/

University of Maryland University Libraries. (2009, September). Evaluating web sites. Retrieved from http://www.lib.umd.edu/guides/evaluate.html/